Historiographical Survey of Nazi Germany Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Historiographical Survey of Nazi Germany - Essay Example Moreover, the country lead by Hitler was called as Nazi Germany which was one of the most powerful countries in that era. There are many aspects of Nazi Germany which can be discussed and there are many factors and questions which can be raised in this topic. As the twentieth century is filled with revolutions, the movement of Nazi Germany is also considered as or can be perceived as a â€Å"Revolution† and Hitler being the â€Å"Revolutionist† for some people because it was the time when Germany was â€Å"Progressing† economically and militarily. Even though Nazi Germany and policies made by Hitler could be perceived as â€Å"Revolution† for some people, however, the movement of Nazi Germany was not a revolution because it was not well supported and appreciated by the people of the country. The debate of â€Å"Nazi Germany as a Revolution† is really important because it was the Nazi Germany which was one of the most prominent causes of world war tw o. Moreover, it was actually lead by an ideology called as â€Å"Fascism† on the basis of which the movement of Nazi Germany got its support from the people. In this way, this debate is also very important because it involves an ideology which was affecting not only the political but economic aspects of Japan, Italy, Austria and Germany. Furthermore, one of the most important features of Fascism and Fascist Nazi Germany headed by Adolf Hitler is that the economy tends to be independent from other countries and the economic needs of the country must be fulfilled y its own money and resources. In this way, the country also tends to be economically independent for its progress. In this way, the debate over Nazi Germany is very important because it was fascism and fascist Nazi policies due to which the economy of Germany was growing so fast. On the other hand, this debate over Nazi Germany also deals with the matter of the fact that their ideology known as â€Å"Fascism† w as totally opposite to that of communism and, later on, Germany fought with the Soviet Union which was a Communist regime. Besides this, the importance of this debate can also be estimated by the by the fact that it was Nazi Germany which started Second World War in which Nuclear Bomb was used for the first time in the history of human kind in which a large number of people were killed out of whom 22,565 are still alive. So this was the Germany itself which challenged the world and destroyed itself, and eventually leaving the rest of the world for the Cold War between Communism and Capitalism. Besides this, the debate over Nazi Germany is also very important because it involves and discusses the brutality over the Jews and, hence, teaches the younger generation about tolerance for the diversity of beliefs and equality for the people of all religions. Another important question can also be that even if it was a revolution then whether it was supported by bourgeoisie according to the Marxist view point (Henry, 185) or it was supported by the common masses of all classes? 1 The debate over the very controversial issue â€Å"Nazi as a Revolution† involves many questions and aspects which can be argued and discussed. For example, an 2important question surrounding this debate is that was Nazi policies and movement supported by the people of Germany? Similarly there are also many other questions surrounding this debate such as the question about the formation and building block of

Eminent Domain Essay Example for Free

Eminent Domain Essay The power of eminent domain is succinctly provided under the U. S. Constitution, specifically in the Fifth Amendment which in part provides, â€Å". . . nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation† (U. S. Constitution, Fifth Amendment). The power of eminent domain is one of the attributes of sovereignty. This being the case, it can still be exercised even without a constitutional provision to that effect [Boom Co. V. Patterson, 98 U. S. 403 (1878)]. Historically, the power of eminent domain has been employed by the American colonies for public projects like roads and bridges (Oxford Companion, 2005). Originally, the power was considered to be applicable only to the federal government by virtue of the Fifth Amendment. â€Å"The power of eminent domain of state governments was unrestrained by any federal authority† {Green v. Frazier, 253 U. S. 233 (1920)]. â€Å"The just compensation provision of the Fifth Amendment did not apply to the States, and at first the contention that the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment afforded property owners the same measure of protection against the States as the Fifth Amendment did against the Federal Government was rejected† (Find Law web site, n. . ). However, with the inclusion of the Due Process clause or the Fourteenth Amendment, the power applied to the states in so far as the just compensation requirement as an element of due process as the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Chicago, Burlington Quincy Railroad v. Chicago (1897) (Oxford Companion, 2005). Except for North Carolina which exercises the power by virtue of a statutory authority, the other state governments derive theirs from their respective constitutions (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). For the power of eminent domain to be validly exercised, the following requisites or elements must concur and be proven, namely, that the property being taken is private property; there must be ‘taking;’ the taking must be for public use; and, there must be just compensation (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). The first element, private property refers to â€Å"land as well as fixtures, leases, options, stocks, and other items† (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). Property rights such as water rights and right to reasonable use of the space above one’s property may also fall within the purview of private property (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). The second element, ‘taking’ means â€Å"the taking of physical property, or a portion thereof, as well as the taking of property by reducing its value† (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). There is compensation when the property is taken or its use is extensively restricted that it amounts to confiscation. For instance, a highway was constructed over the waterfront to inland property; the owner of that property must be paid considering that he lost his right to use the waterfront (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). Also when airplane flights are low enough to deprive the owner of the private property below of his reasonable use of the space above his property must also be compensated as this amount to taking. The concept of ‘taking’ under the power of eminent domain should not be confused with the regulatory takings under the police power of the State. The power of eminent domain is also called the Takings clause. The difference is that in the exercise of the power of eminent domain, the ‘taking’ is for public use while on the other hand, the ‘taking’ in the exercise of police power is for purposes of regulating that property as it is â€Å"detrimental to public interest† (U. S. Constitution Annotated, n. d. ). The ‘taking’ in the exercise of police power is for the common welfare and is usually in the health and safety regulations (U. S. Constitution Annotated, n. d. ). The third element is ‘public use. It is required that the property is taken for the use and benefit of the public and not specific persons. The determination of whether a specific use is public or not rests upon the courts and is considered a question of fact. However, if there is a law which specifies the public use for which it shall be devoted, â€Å"courts will defer to legislative intent† (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). In the determination of ‘public use’ the courts inquire into the fact that the property would be used by â€Å"broad segment of the general public† (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). Through the years the Supreme Court in its judicial pronouncements, has expanded the concept of public use as to include â€Å"trade centers, municipal civic centers, and airport expansions† (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). In 1954, public use even encompassed beautification purposes of the community. In the case of Berman v. Parker, the Court declared that the clearing of the slums is deemed as public use. The Court reviewed the plan of District of Columbia to raze properties which are partly blighted so that a department store can be erected to be managed by a private entity. The Supreme Court upheld the decision of District Columbia and ruled that it is within the prerogative of the legislative body to determine which property can be subject to the ‘taking’ for aesthetic considerations (348 U. S. 26). â€Å"Subject to specific constitutional limitations, the legislature, not the judiciary, is the main guardian of the public needs to be served by social legislation enacted in the exercise of the police power; and this principle admits of no exception merely because the power of eminent domain is involved† [Berman v. Parker 348 U. S. 26 (1954)]. In support of the legislative body, the Court further ruled that it is within the legislature’s power to address the issues of blighted areas of the community. â€Å"Redevelopment of an entire area under a balanced integrated plan so as to include not only new homes but also schools, churches, parks, streets, and shopping centers is plainly relevant to the maintenance of the desired housing standards and therefore within congressional power† [Berman v. Parker 348 U. S. 26 (1954)]. Traditionally, the concept of public use was applied in cases which involved supplying of water, electricity, transportation, roads and bridges and the like but due to the expansion of its scope through the years, a definitive determination of its scope is difficult. Defining the scope is basically one of legislative pronouncement directed to the purposes of government, incapable of abstract or historical definition [Berman v. Parker 348 U. S. 26 (1954)]. In a recent case of Hawaii Housing Authority v.  Midkiff (1984), at issue was the Land Reform Act of 1967 which provided for â€Å"a land condemnation scheme† in which title over the real property is passed from the owner-lessor to the lessees to re-distribute land and â€Å"reduce concentration of land ownership† [Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff 467 U. S. 229 (1984)]. It allowed lessees who reside in tracts of land with at least five acres of land area to request for condemnation from the Hawaii Housing Authority. A hearing would be ordered to determine if the condemnation is for public use [Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff 467 U. S. 229 (1984)]. The rationale in the transfer of ownership is found in the preservation of a free market. The proposition proceeds from a realization that concentration of land in the hands of the few prevented the â€Å"free market in real estate† and therefore its preservation is deemed a public benefit [Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff 467 U. S. 229 (1984)]. The allowance of these takings for reconveyance of land is allowed even by the U. S. Supreme Court based on the idea that the new owners will spur more effective uses to the land and thereby create more revenues in the form of taxes for the government. The last element of the power of eminent domain is just compensation. The measure of just compensation or the amount to be paid to the owner of the property condemned or expropriated is based on the fair market value (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). It is defined as â€Å"the price that could have reasonably resulted from negotiations between an owner who was willing to sell and a purchaser who desired to buy (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). This value is determined by the uses to which the property can be devoted at the time of the taking. Factors such as â€Å"history and general character of the area and the adaptability of the land for future buildings† are also considered (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). The Court, in the case of Monongahela Navigation Co. v. United States, explained that the value of just compensation should be based on the owner’s loss being placed in the best financial position as if the property had not been expropriated rather than the value of gain for the condemnor (Monongahela Navigation Co. v. United States, 148 U. S. 312). The compensation should be paid in cash, and the amount is determined as of the date title vests in the condemnor. Interest is paid on the award until the date of payment† (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). The proceedings usually vary in the different states. Basically, it involves two phases, i. e. condemnation of the property and the determination of just compensation. During the pendency of the proceedings, the owner of the condemned property may continue in using his property provided that there is no substantial alteration of the same is made (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). In all proceedings, the owner must be afforded due process. This means that he must be duly notified and be given an opportunity to be heard, i. e. present his evidence and his own witnesses. He must be given also the opportunity to dispute the compensation determined if he does not agree with it. â€Å"The owner of the land has an automatic right to appeal† (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). There are also cases when the owner of the land is the party that commences the proceedings. This is called inverse condemnation proceedings. This type of proceedings is usually resorted to for environmental concerns when the government has encroached on the interest of the owner of the land without paying him the just compensation such as when the government â€Å"floods a farmers field or pollutes a stream crossing private land† (West’s Encyclopedia of American Law, 1998). With the disappearance of the traditional federal constitutional restraints on the exercise of the power of eminent domain, has the ‘public use’ requirement metamorphosed into public abuse. What therefore are its ramifications and how can these be resolved. Discussion and Analysis The power of eminent domain had been recognized by the American judiciary as a ‘despotic’ power, that notwithstanding, it also recognized that it is an inherent power necessary for it to subsist. Traditionally, the Takings clause was used only in clear situations necessitating public use projects where public necessity has been shown. The power has been exercised for bridges, roads and the like. As it developed, it was also exercised in relation to development of blighted areas because the removal of slum areas is considered as for a public purpose. The Berman case has to a certain extent modified ‘public use’ into ‘public purpose. ’ In fact it has passed on judicial responsibility of scrutiny to the legislative body that once the object is within its authority, the right to exercise the power becomes clear. As if this was not enough, the concept of ‘public use’ was completely eroded in the case of Kelo, et al. v. City of New London, Connecticut which was decided by the Supreme Court in 2005 (545 U. S. 4). A large-scale development plan was approved by the New London in order to spur economic development to an economically distressed city in terms of jobs, taxes and revenues. The residential neighborhood which is not blighted is supposed to be replaced by a research center, office space, conference hotel and the like. Portions of the project will be leased out by the private developers who will build the entire project. The city development agent was able to purchase private lands from the consenting owners. However, a number of the other residents refused to sell out and contested the condemnation proceedings initiated against their properties. The property owners filed an appeal before the Supreme Court after the having lost in the Connecticut Supreme Court [Kelo, et al. v.  City of New London, 545 U. S. 4 (2005)]. The U. S. Supreme Court ruled, â€Å"’public use’ should not be read literally. It has embraced the broader and more natural interpretation of public use as public purpose. Promoting economic development is a traditional and long-accepted governmental function. Therefore, the condemnations were for a public purpose and met the public use requirement† [Kelo, et al. v. City of New London, 545 U. S. 4 (2005)]. The rationale, for which the Bill of Rights in the Constitution was included, is for the purpose of protecting the citizenry from the vast powers of the government. These are safeguards to ensure individuals from possible abuses. Therefore any issue of doubt should be interpreted in favor of the individual and strictly against the government. Protecting property rights is one of the hallmarks of democracy. With the recent decision of the Supreme Court, every property now lies under the ghost of condemnation for the benefit of private persons. The requisites provided by the Constitution for the exercise of the power of eminent domain must be strictly adhered to and should not be interpreted loosely as to accommodate expanded meanings. It may be argued that redevelopment would bring benefits to the community and therefore the public as whole; still this is done at the expense of depriving and even curtailing the property rights of property owners who refuse to surrender them in the guise of a reasonable and lawful exercise of the power of eminent domain. Again, it may be argued further that these property owners would nevertheless receive just compensation. However, the proceedings and the determination of the amount of just compensation may be tedious. The owner who may have issues as to the amount already determined may have scarce resources to raise these issues in a long and expensive legal battle in court as against vast resources of government and legal machinery. In general, with an expansive justification to the taking, the peaceful possession and ownership of a property owner is disturbed. Analysis of states legislations reveal that majority of the laws contain justification for the exercise of the power of eminent domain in cases where there is a determination of blighted areas which pose unsanitary and unsafe conditions. In these cases, the necessity for public use is clearly established. In the case of Kelo, no such necessity exists and the higher risk of redevelopment authorities to take advantage of such ruling is not remote. The ruling in the Kelo case signifies the utter lack of creativity and ingenuity on the part of the state authorities to conceive and plan ways and means to spur economic redevelopment other than by taking private properties from its owners. The state officials/government seemed to have acted as middleman in procuring property for the private individuals. One of the city redevelopment directors has been quoted as saying, â€Å"city decides which properties to condemn based on whether someone in the private sector wants the land and has a project for it† (Staley, 2003). Clearly, it is the private interests that push redevelopment. The issue of whether this would benefit the public would remain to be seen and while waiting for this to materialize, the property owners were already deprived of the properties they have acquired and established residence in through time. Economic redevelopment is basically a function and responsibility of government but by approving redevelopment plans of private contractors and the acquisition of private properties under the guise of the power of eminent domain, government has in effect contracted out its function and responsibility in spurring economic development within their localities in favor of private entities. On the whole, the exercise of the power of eminent domain under the expansive meaning of ‘public use’ sends a wrong signal to private individuals. It is every American’s dream to own and establish a family home in a community where their children can grow up. In fact laws such as the Homeowners Protection Act have been enacted to support this and assist those who establish family residential homes. It is also every American’s dream to own real property so they toil and labor so that the fruits of their work can be invested for their security in the future. However, with the deplorable manner by which the power of eminent domain is now exercised, property rights are wrecked and city governments are on carte blanche as to which properties may be condemned as dictated by redevelopment companies whose only tool seems to be that. The Court in the Kelo case reverted to the States the function to impose restrictions and restraints in the exercise of the power of eminent domain. This may be interpreted as an abdication of the Court’s power to strike down the abusive manner in which the power of eminent domain was exercised. It is empowered by the Constitution under its judicial review power to declare whether an act of government officials have been executed beyond the mandated duties and functions. The Court is duty bound to ensure safeguards against government action.

Pediatric and Adult Migraines Essay -- Health Head Aches Essays

Pediatric and Adult Migraines Many people are surprised to find that children get migraines. It is one of those illnesses that are associated with adults only. A migraine is an intense, pounding headache with nausea that occurs infrequently. The headache starts around the eyes, the forehead, or the sides of the head. Bright lights and loud noises also make the headache worse, and any movements make this headache worse. Migraines last from a few hours to a few days in serious cases (1). Over 8 million children get migraines a year, which results in over 1 million lost schooldays cumulatively. 20% of adolescents in high school suffer from migraines as well. Pediatric migraines commonly stop when a child becomes an adult. Migraines occurring prior to puberty are about evenly split between boys and girls, and after puberty many more girls than boys experience them. Older children experience migraine pain typically on only one side of the head. Younger children, however, experience pain on both sides of the head. Some people also see a "warning aura," which is a pattern of lines or shadows in front of their eyes as the headache starts (2). Types of migraines are therefore classified as either common (no aura warning) or classic (with aura warning). Aura symptoms usually occur 30 to 60 minutes before the acute headache and generally are resolved by that time (3). Why are pediatric and adult migraines different? There are many different stimulants that trigger a migraine headache. Certain foods, like cheese, processed meats, chocolate, caffeine, MSG, nuts, or pickles are common triggers. Stress and too much exercise can also trigger an attack (1). Most children with migraines have a family history of ... ...ds.com/Health/Advice/migrainetreatme_zyg_gn.html 5) Aromaa, M. et al. "Pain Experience of Children With Headache and their Families: A Controlled Study." Pediatrics 106 (2000): 270-275 . 6) Hermann, C. and Blanchard, E.B. "Psychophysiological Reactivity in Pediatric Migraine Patients and Healthy Controls." Journal of Psychosomatic Research44:2 (1998): 229-240. 7)Sartory, G. et al. "A comparison of psychological and pharmacological treatment of pediatric migraine." Behaviour Research and Therapy 36 (1998): 1155-1170. 8) Pivate Pharmacological Information site, greeat online pharmacist answers to questions about metoprolol medication. http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/metopro.htm 9) Gerber, Wolf-Dieter et al. "Slow cortical potentials in migraine families are associated with psychosocial factors." Journal of Psychosomatic Research 52 (2002): 215-222.

Wisdom of Parents in the Poem, Photograph of My Father In His Twenty-Second Year :: Photograph of My Father In His Twenty-Second Year

Wisdom of Parents in the Poem, Photograph of My Father In His Twenty-Second Year We have all grown up hearing our parent's advice "Do as I say, not as I do". When your parents give this advice you do not always listen at first, but later on in life you may catch yourself using it. I believe it is very important value, respect and listen to what your parent's say; their experience with life is their major tool in shaping their children into adults. Parents have lived life longer than their children that is a fact. And what they have gained is wisdom. Through out their lives they have learned from their personal experience and can use these experiences to try and guide their children in the right direction in a similar experience. In the poem "A Song In The Front Yard" (Gwendoly Brooks, Bridges 44) it gives us a picture of a child wanting to explore more of the world than her parents think she should. "I've stayed in the front yard all my life,"(Line 1) this line tells us that the child was a little sheltered. Not able to go out of the front yard the child was kept in away from the rest of the world. "I want a peek at the back" (Line 2) in this line the child wants to explore more than just the front yard, just to go into the back yard would be great. "To where the charity children play. I want a good time today. They do some wonderful things. They have some wonderful fun. (Lines 8-10) In these lines they show how the child sees the surroundings outside the fence. The child sees that the other children are doing fun things that the child wishes he or she could do. He or she sees the activities of the other children as wonderful. The other children are probably doing things that the child in the front yard doesn't get to do. "My mother sneers, but I say it's fine how they don't have to go in at quarter to nine. My mother, she tells me that Johnnie Ma will grow up to be a bad woman." (Lines 11-14) In these lines the poet depicts the mother's feelings of the other children. She doesn't think that they are the best crowd for her child to be influenced by or maybe the activities they are doing are quite appropriate.

Reasons for bullying behaviour Essay

Olweus (1980) identified that bullying children are usually impulsive and have an aggressive temperament and children who are bullied have a shy or weak temperament. Some of the children who are bullied lack assertiveness skills. Also, being different in some way such as being from a different ethnic group increases the chances of being bullied. In addition, children with special educational needs, with a physical disability or mild or moderate learning difficulties are also at risk of getting bullied. Researches conducted by Petterson, DeBaryshe and Ramsay (1989) also identifies factors at home as reasons for bullying. Factors such as lack of warmth between the parents or among other members of the family, use of physical violence within the family or lack of clear guidance for behaviour to the children or even lack of monitoring of children’s activities. Study conducted by Olweus (1980) in Norvegia also indicated links of family background to bullying. For bullied children, Olweus (1993) found that over-protective parenting may increase the risk of being bullied. Children in over-protected family environments usually do not develop skills as much as children who are independent and hence become vulnerable by the bullies. Bowers, Smith and Binney (1992) conducted research on the children’s, who are either the bullies or the victims, perception of their families. They studied and compared the perceptions of bullies, victims, bully/victims and control children. The study indicated that many bullies and bully/victims perceived that their families were relatively lacking affection among the family members. The study also revealed that there were very poor monitoring procedures. The children who are only involved in bullying perceived that their families have power relationships between the siblings and the other members of the family. In this case of bully/victims the children perceived difficulties with the parental behaviour such as punitive ness and lack of involvement. The children perceived that their parents were more concerned about their own position in the family. (Smith, P. K. et al, 2007) Peer-level characteristics associated with bullying and victimisation Peers are considered to be the most influential group in issues related to bullying. Various studies such as Espelage et al (2003), Pellegrini & Long (2002), Rodkin et al (2000) have studied the influence of peers in how individuals take to aggression and bullying. Homophily Hypothesis This hypothesis is based on the similarity of individuals within a group. In the late childhood and early adolescence, the peer group becomes extremely important for the individuals. During this time, the peer group involves in similar behavioural dimensions such as smoking, academic achievements and so on. This similarity within the group is called homophily. In studies conducted on middle school students, homophily was found to be true in explaining the extent of how much the peer influenced each other in bullying their peers. The effect of peers was found to be higher for bullying than fighting. This provided evidence that peer influence plays an important role in low-level aggression than fighting. It was found that students generally hang out with the kids who bullied others. It was found that the students who bullied at similar frequency were found to hang out more. Dominance theory Dominance theory is based on the observation that during the early adolescence, children look to increase their dominance. Pellegrini (2002) observed that the transition to middle school requires children to renegotiate their dominance relationships. Bullying is found to be a deliberate strategy for attaining the dominance, especially in a newly formed peer groups. Studies indicate that bullying was used more frequently by boys who targeted their aggression towards other boys during this transition. This theory is structured around the complex interaction among the adolescent for the need of dominance, changes in the social surroundings and peer-group structure and the desire to interact with the opposite sex. Attraction Theory Attraction theory is based on the change in behaviour of young adolescents. It focuses on their need to establish a separation from their parents and also become attracted to other people in their age group who possess characteristics that is a reflection of independence. This independence can be interpreted as delinquency, aggression, disobedience and similar characteristics. In this period, these adolescents are less attracted to individuals who possess characteristics of childhood such as compliance and obedience. This makes these early adolescents attracted to peers who are aggressive. This was also found during a study of 217 boys and girls by Bukowski, who found that the girls and boys were more attracted to aggressive peers when they entered the middle school. The increase in attraction for aggressiveness was more for girls. The different theories, especially the homophily hypothesis, dominance theory and attraction theory demonstrate the complex nature of bullying during the early years of adolescence.

Argue the case both for and against the suggestion that sovereignty is of declining significance in international relations Essay Example

Argue the case both for and against the suggestion that sovereignty is of declining significance in international relations Essay Example Argue the case both for and against the suggestion that sovereignty is of declining significance in international relations Essay Argue the case both for and against the suggestion that sovereignty is of declining significance in international relations Essay It is too facile to claim that, in a globalised world, the age of state is dead, although it is also now much harder to sustain the argument that the state is all-powerful (McCrone quoted in Tierney, 2005, 171) Realists claim the sovereign state the central actor in international politics. Indeed, most theories of international relations recognize the sovereign state as the dominant entity in the international society. Nevertheless, the rise of international institutions and worldwide economic integration is questioning the very viability of the sovereign state (Brown, 2005, 3). This essay will elaborate on the existence of state sovereignty in todays globalized world. It will bring forth arguments pro the suggestion that sovereignty is of declining significance in international relations, as well as con. Firstly, the concept of sovereignty is briefly evaluated. Secondly, it is contended that sovereignty consists of four identities and that these for identities are disconnected. Thirdly, challenges to state sovereignty will be divided into three dimensions 1) the emergence of supra-national states 2) sub-state nationalism 3) globalization and primarily economic integration. Lastly, this essay will reason that these challenges are threatening different elements of sovereignty, arguing their relative significance. Due to reason of space and the vastness and controversy of this essay topic, limitations are inevitable. The essay is majorly dealing with contemporary issues related to the debate and the reader should bear in mind that the essay is elusive in the sense that arguments are only dealt with cursorily. The concept of sovereignty Before examining how state sovereignty may be withering away, it is imperative to understand how sovereignty has been traditionally conceived. Since the late 16th century sovereignty has been strictly linked to the concept of states and Bodin undeniably referred to the supreme authority conferred on the state. Albeit, in medieval France souverain could refer to any authority which had no other authority above itself (Oppenheim, 1912, 111) and therefore its highest court were at that time entitled Cours Soverains (Pemberton, 2009, 1). Sovereignty in absolute terms reflects the status secured at the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the constitution recognized the following definition: within its borders the state or government has entitlement to supreme, unqualified and exclusive political and legal authority (McGrew, 2006, 29). In reality, sovereignty is an indefinite phenomenon, mirroring the complex system of how states function today (Pemberton, 2009, 1). Nuanced identifications of sovereignty commonly refer to it as not an organic whole but a container of both legal and political elements (Brown, 2005, 116). More specifically, Krasner identifies four different ways of conceptualizing sovereignty. Firstly, Domestic sovereignty refers to the authoritarian organization within the state and its effectiveness. Secondly, Interdependence sovereignty is the ability of a state to control the movements of goods, people, capital and ideas across its borders. Thirdly, International legal sovereignty refers to the recognition as a sovereign state in the international society. For example, an internationally legal sovereign state can sit in the United Nation and voluntarily sign treaties. Lastly, Westphalian sovereignty has according to Krasner nothing to do with the Peace of Westphalia. It refers to authoritative external influences being absent, in other words, not to intervene in other sovereign states internal affairs (Krasner, 1999, 3-5). If nothing else stated, forthcoming discussion will refer to sovereignty as incorporating all these elements. Sovereignty a container of elements In terms of sovereignty, the world has never really worked in the way people assert it has. Krasner claim that domestic, interdependence, legal international and Westphalian sovereignty are disconnected and hardly any state embodies all four of them, the United States might be one of the rare cases (Krasner, 1999, 5-10). Hong Kong is one amongst many problematic examples. As a member of the World Trade Organization Hong Kong to some extent has international legal sovereignty, however, it does not have Westphalian sovereignty as China at any time can intervene. Additionally, Somalia is a very common example of a so-called failing state. It obviously does not have effective domestic sovereignty and disputably it might or might not have Westphalian sovereignty. Still, like other failing states in Sub-Saharan Africa, it has international legal sovereignty and thus recognized as a sovereign state (Krasner, 2008, 1-5) (McCall Smith 2001, 83-90) States do not have to be failing or oddities like Hong Kong to lack one element of the four identities. Krasners argument that there are fewer countries than we think which actually consist of all elements supports the idea of sovereignty as not a narrow positivist construction. Additionally, one can argue that some aspects of sovereignty are of more or less importance in todays world. Three challenges to sovereignty According to Stephen Tierney, there are three rival sites of authority contesting the construction of the sate as supreme site of territorial sovereignty (Tierney, 2005, 175). Supra-states Firstly, the emergence of supra-state political and lawful orders of which the European Union is the most frequent example; another less institutionally sophisticated examples is the World Trade Organization (Tierney, 2005, 164-166). Indisputably, the pre-eminence of EU law contravene the sovereignty of the Member States. Law-making power is one of the key features of sovereignty and on principle the EU courts decisions have direct effects on Member States. This is argued a loss of Westphalian sovereignty, however, all Member Sates have voluntarily signed the constitution. In that sense, state sovereignty as a whole remains intact as any member can, although unfeasibly, decide to leave the union (Pemberton, 2009, 2-6) (Conversation with Stephen D. Krasner, 2003). With the emergence of supra-national orders (NAFTA, ASEAN etc.), states increasingly limit their Westphalian Sovereignty. On the contrary, Member Sates of supra-national orders have not been giving up international legal sovereignty (they are still individually represented in the UN), stressing its recurrent significance. Therefore McGrew argues sovereignty no longer a legal claim to absolute power but a tool of bargaining with other agencies and social impetuses (McGrew, 2006, 33). As a response to arguments that states are forfeiting power, Tierney contends supra-states (as well as sub-state movements) represent the reallocation of state power to alternative territorial sites. Hence, it is not a loss of power from the state but rather the redistribution within it (Tierney 2005, 172). Sub-sate nationalism During the last three decades, sub-state national societies have emerged within a number of liberal democracies; three outstanding examples are Scotland (United Kingdom), Quebec (Canada) and Catalonia (Spain). Not only have they re-declared their national distinctiveness but also called upon constitutional recognitions (Tierney, 2005, 167). It is often wrongly believed that sub-state nationalism is driven by the same impetus as existing states and built on the same dynamics. Likewise supra-states sub-state nationalism is territorially based, but at the same time distinctly different as it first and foremost operates within the state, nevertheless acting beyond its borders. Ergo, sub-state nationalism poses structural challenges to the coherence Westphalian nation-state model and the monistic concept of it. Furthermore, embodies a similar amount of authority akin to the two challenges mentioned above (Tierney, 2005, 166-169). Sub-state movements disputably subvert domestic sovereignty. Even though Tierney argue secessionist movements in decline, if a particular sub-national group no longer want to be apart of the parent state, it may perforce lead to erosion of confidence in state leadership. Indeed, the government ability to exercise domestic sovereignty will be impeded by the need to direct resources to quell riots and the lack of confidence (Cohan, 2006, 932). Globalization and economic integration Tierney refers to the sectoral level as primarily economic challenges through the extra-territorial dimension often referred to as globalization (Tierney, 2005, 165). Globalization is an ambiguous phenomenon open to a myriad of interpretations; McGrew refers to it as an increasing sense of interconnectedness, driven by various economic factors, technological innovation, changes in policy and cultural preferences (McGrew, 2006, 22). Disputably, globalization is subverting the authority of the state as the importance of the borders and boundaries that disaggregate the word into its some 193 states are diminishing (McGrew, 2006, 22). With a shrinking world, issues such as terrorism, nuclear weapons, and the environment have become of global concern because of their likelihood to have worldwide consequences. Thus, with increased interconnectedness Cohan argues globalization leads to the inability of the state to use unfettered powers (Cohan, 2006, 910). Multinational corporations, which can move factories in and out of countries or impose demands upon the state before investing, is one amongst many examples demonstrating how global integration external pressure is restricting the power of the sovereign state. Both the East Asian crisis in 1997 and the financial collapse of the American economy in 2008 had disastrous worldwide consequences (McGrew, 2006, 20). As for a current issue, if no solution is cooperated, the European debt crisis will have severe international ramifications (The Economist, 17 September 2011). Such crises undeniably depict how integrated the world financial system has become and how sensitive markets and states are to one another. Consequently, Susan Strange suggests that market forces are controlling the state governments rather than the opposite (Simpson, 2008, 59). As stressed above, global forces are undermining government control over national economies and their societies, leading to a comparative denationalization of power and a world with shared social space (McGrew, 2006, 24). Hence, one can proclaim that globalization is fundamentally questioning interdependence sovereignty. Nevertheless, critics believe that sectoral confrontations lead to a diffusion of certain powers to de-territorialised sites but not necessarily a demise of the sovereign state as a whole (Tierney 2005, 172). Challenges to state sovereignty not a new phenomenon Notwithstanding supra-national institutions, globalization and the emergence of sub-state nationalism, threats to state sovereignty are not new phenomena. Indeed, violations reach back all the way to the very creation of the concept itself. Recalling Krasners four identities of sovereignty the existence of two chief dimensions, Westphalian sovereignty and to a lesser extent international legal sovereignty, have been frequently challenged (Conversation with Stephen D. Krasner, 2003). In an interview by Harry Kreisler, Krasner emphasises the challenges to Westphalian sovereignty have involved alternative norms. The four most salient have been religious toleration (17th and 18th century), minority rights (19th and first half of 20th century), human rights (last half of 20th and the 21st century) and lastly international stability (Conversation with Stephen D. Krasner, 2003). It is plausible that these challenges to sovereignty emerge because not only does sovereignty include rights but also responsibilities and therefore, the exercise of state sovereignty becomes restricted. It is highly contested that sovereignty should not be respected when a state is not living up to these international norms. For instance, the right to intervene if a state government is committing genocide (Haines, 2009, 102). Notwithstanding the history of state sovereignty, challenges may be of more or less threatening remark. It is argued that forces confronting state sovereignty today are of such prodigious dimensions that it inevitably leads to sovereignty becoming a moribund institution (McGrew, 2006, 25). However, this essay has argued that some of the four elements of sovereignty have been more or less challenged. Indeed, international legal sovereignty seem not have been threatened but rather increased in significance, arguably because states still value international recognition. Calling to mind not only the newly created state of the Republic of South Sudan but also the heated dispute over Palestinian sovereignty. Conclusion One can argue that whereas some identities of sovereignty are of declining significance (and relatively so) others are not. Firstly, interdependence sovereignty is profoundly challenged by globalization and economic integration. Secondly, sub-state nationalism is challenging the monolithic tone of Westphalian sovereignty and if these movements turn secessionist it will perforce lead to a decline in domestic sovereignty. Thirdly, Westphalian sovereignty is limited by the emergence of supra-states such as the EU. As a matter of fact, interdependence sovereignty and Westphalian sovereignty seem to be the most contested, the former because of the vastness of globalization and economic integration. The latter has not only historically been highly disputed but also presently as external threats such as supra-national orders and sub-state nationalism are gaining momentum. On the contrary, international legal sovereignty is undeniably recurrent, calling to mind newly created states such as South Sudan. Furthermore, recollecting that Member Sates of the EU and other supra-national orders have been willing to limit some dimension of sovereignty, however, they are all still recognized as individual states. Mindful the dissonance of the four dimensions of sovereignty, neither can it be argued that sovereignty is of waning significance nor of increased importance. Perhaps it is more of a ringing bell stressing the need for an alteration of the term Sovereignty in order to reflect the world reality.

Free Essays on Eating Disorders

Eating Disorders On their website, The Eating Disorders Association, a British organization dedicated to providing information on the diseases, defines eating disorders as â€Å"complex illnesses where both the disturbed eating pattern as well as the psychological aspects need to be treated.† l "FNote1" Eating disorders can affect people of any age, male or female, with no regard to race or ethnicity. They often are the signal of deeply ingrained self-esteem problems which cause the person to perceive a negative image of themselves which is often far worse than the reality. Eating disorders generally result when people have negative self-images of themselves. A girl, for example, may feel that she is too heavy, and so may develop an eating disorder as a result of this image, regardless of whether or not she is actually overweight. Eating disorders can be life threatening for males and females and usually â€Å"include extreme emotions, attitudes, and behaviors surrounding weight and food issues.† l "FNote2" There are many different kinds of eating disorders. Each has its own symptoms and is a sign of a different psychological perception of the person’s self. It is important to distinguish between eating disorders and what the Harvard Eating Disorders Center calls â€Å"disordered eating†. Whereas eating disorders are an illness which results from constant worrying about image and diet, disordered eating is merely a bad habit which is the result of not knowing the proper foods and eating habits. Eating disorders often lead to drastic loss of weight or change in physical appearance, but disordered eating more often results in short term, less substantial changes in weight. Finally, while eating disorders often require specific medical treatment by professionals with an understanding of the specific disease, disordered eating can usually be treated simply by educating the person and making them more conscious of the requirements for ... Free Essays on Eating Disorders Free Essays on Eating Disorders Eating Disorders For reasons that are unclear, some people, mainly young women, develop potentially life-threatening eating disorders. Eating disorders are emotional illnesses that cause a person to adopt harmful eating habits. They often get worse the longer they go untreated. The lack of nutrition associated with eating disorders can harm the body's organs and, in severe cases, lead to death. The two most common types of eating disorders are bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. Bulimics indulge in bingeing, which is eating large amounts of food and purging. Anorectics, severely limit their food intake. About half of them also have bulimia symptoms. The causes of bulimia and anorexia have many theories. One is that some teenagers feel abnormally pressured to be as thin as the "ideal" portrayed by magazines, movies and television. Another is that defects in key chemical messengers in the brain may contribute to the disorders development or persistence. They are most common among teenage girls and women, and frequently occur along with other psychiatric disorders such as depression and anxiety disorders. Bulimia is caused once people begin bingeing and purging, usually in conjunction with a diet. While cases tend to develop during the teens or early 20s, many bulimics successfully hide their symptoms, thereby delaying help until they reach their 30s or 40s. Many people with bulimia maintain a nearly normal weight. Though they appear healthy and "perfectionists" at whatever they do but they have low self-esteem and are often depressed. While normal food intake for women and teenagers is 2,000 to 3,000 calories in a day, bulimic binges average about 3,400 calories in 1 1/4 hours. Some bulimics consume up to 20,000 calories in binges lasting as long as eight hours. Some spend $50 or more a day on food and may resort to stealing food or money to support their obsession. To lose the weight gained during a binge, bulimics begin purgi... Free Essays on Eating Disorders Eating Disorders On their website, The Eating Disorders Association, a British organization dedicated to providing information on the diseases, defines eating disorders as â€Å"complex illnesses where both the disturbed eating pattern as well as the psychological aspects need to be treated.† l "FNote1" Eating disorders can affect people of any age, male or female, with no regard to race or ethnicity. They often are the signal of deeply ingrained self-esteem problems which cause the person to perceive a negative image of themselves which is often far worse than the reality. Eating disorders generally result when people have negative self-images of themselves. A girl, for example, may feel that she is too heavy, and so may develop an eating disorder as a result of this image, regardless of whether or not she is actually overweight. Eating disorders can be life threatening for males and females and usually â€Å"include extreme emotions, attitudes, and behaviors surrounding weight and food issues.† l "FNote2" There are many different kinds of eating disorders. Each has its own symptoms and is a sign of a different psychological perception of the person’s self. It is important to distinguish between eating disorders and what the Harvard Eating Disorders Center calls â€Å"disordered eating†. Whereas eating disorders are an illness which results from constant worrying about image and diet, disordered eating is merely a bad habit which is the result of not knowing the proper foods and eating habits. Eating disorders often lead to drastic loss of weight or change in physical appearance, but disordered eating more often results in short term, less substantial changes in weight. Finally, while eating disorders often require specific medical treatment by professionals with an understanding of the specific disease, disordered eating can usually be treated simply by educating the person and making them more conscious of the requirements for ...

Your Rights and Responsibilities As a New U.S. Citizen

Your Rights and Responsibilities As a New U.S. Citizen Becoming an American citizen with all the freedoms and opportunities this nation has to offer is the dream of many immigrants. Those who are fortunate enough to be in a position to pursue naturalization gain the same rights and privileges of citizenship as natural born American citizens save one: naturalized U.S. citizens are not eligible for the Office of the President of the United States. With these new rights, citizenship also brings with is some important responsibilities. As a new U.S. citizen, it is your duty to you give back to your adopted nation by fulfilling these responsibilities. Rights of U.S. Citizens Vote in federal electionsServe on a juryBring family members to the United StatesObtain citizenship for children born abroadTravel with a U.S. passportRun for federal officeBecome eligible for federal grants and scholarship Responsibilities of U.S. Citizens Support and defend the ConstitutionServe the country when requiredParticipate in the democratic processRespect and obey federal, state, and local lawsRespect the rights, beliefs, and opinions of othersParticipate in your local community (Source: USCIS)

Advertising Media Identification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Advertising Media Identification - Essay Example These include future employment of the children, and the importance and nature of social interaction, which varies significantly between the two advertisements based on gender. Gender has long been something that has been of greatest concern to advertisers and to the advertising consuming public. It is of concern to advertisers because it is an incredibly important part of identity, and advertisers need to tap into identity needs to understand how to best sell to the public. It is of great concern for the public, however, because the public wants to be able to resist advertisers having undue influence on the development of those identities. These concerns are especially prevalent in the case of advertising for children. For some time the main concern of gender advertising has been associated with the main concern for advertising for adults: body image. Children’s advertisers tended to fall into the same techniques as advertisers for adults do: portraying â€Å"limited diversi ty in physical attributes† – usually meaning body type and skin color . But an emerging trend, demonstrated by two advertisements for Lego products, traditional Lego marketed towards boys and a new line, â€Å"Lego Friends,† marketed towards girls,... Both pairs then go on to enjoy their products in varied ways. When delving beyond the superficial, however, it becomes immediately clear that these two ads are not in fact portraying similar things at all, but are rather portraying very different things in regards to the appropriate work roles of people of different gender. The voiceover in the Lego advertisement describes a heavily masculine world view, where â€Å"a man’s home is his fortress,† and the father and son pair then go on to build a house together (Lego 2011). The emphasis here is on construction, and the images support this emphasis: not only is the house always growing and getting new additions, from towers and turrets to walls, windows and propellers, but the colors and patterns involved with those additions is constantly changing and rotating, indicating a flurry of activity on the part of the builders, who are constantly innovating and changing their structure. This thus not-so-subtly implies that a pr oper occupation for male-gendered people is to build things, to be involved with construction and with that kind of physical/mental labor, and that mans nature involves constantly tinkering and innovating to construct new things. It is thus not a stretch to argue that this advertisement perpetuates jobs that require those traits as being male roles: engineers who cannot stop tinkering, construction workers, architects and so on. This advertisement clearly sets out a number of characteristics that male-identified people should possess, and then makes those correspond with jobs and hobbies that men should thus supposedly be engaging in – things that involve using their hands and their heads. While the â€Å"Lego† advertisement is somewhat subtle in its

Flash V. Illumination Industries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Flash V. Illumination Industries - Essay Example In the matter of the wrongful price quotation of the computerized board, the legal team deems the contact entered into between Flash and Mack as being invalid since Mack does not have express authority to enter into such a contract. This argument is based upon the law of agency in which Mack as a contractor does not have actual authority for actions undertaken. Relevant Rules Under the law of agency, Mack is an independent contractor. Mack is a special agent since he undertakes specific assignments for Illumination Industries upon request. The general principle applied in agency law is that a principal is liable for actions undertaken by the agent if the actions fall within the authority of the agent to enter into such agreements. The issue of authority is thus of utmost importance in determining liability of the principal in contracts or actions entered into by the agent. The agent may have authority as a result of express conferment or through implication. In tort litigation the th ird party cannot claim any damages from the principal unless it can be proved that the agent’s actions were within the scope of authority in the contract. Express actual authority entails that the agent has been explicitly given authority to undertake actions on behalf of the principal. There is also the principle of implied actual authority. This is the authority that the contractor has to have if he is to perform his obligations in the required manner. This is exemplified in Ireland v. Livingstone in which the court ruled that the principal is only liable to actions which are expressly authorized by the contract. The principle of implied actual authority is however subject to personal opinion. In the matter of whether Illumination Industries ought to pay for the negligent acts of Mack, the defense team relies upon the principle of independent contractors. The principal is in law not vicariously liable for the negligent actions of the agent since the principal lacks the crit ical relationship found under employer employee. The principal would not be able to exercise the supervisory and control function in the instance of an independent contractor. There is however exceptions to this rule in instances where the actions of the contractor results into injury to a person in the real property of the principal; the contractor’s work involves potentially dangerous activity; and in instances in which the principal acted in a manner to suggest the contractor was an employee or an agent. Arguments Under the law of agency, Illumination Industries is not liable for actions undertaken by Mack since Mack is an independent contractor. Mack is an independent contractor since the nature of his work with Illumination industries is intermittent and he decides on what kinds of jobs to accept. Mack as an independent contractor does not have the authority to make quotations on the prices of goods which Illuminating Industries is to pay since he does not have the power of agent. The plaintiff may however argue that Illuminating industries had delegated authority to Mack in order to complete the job. In arguing that the job in its entirety had been delegated to Mack the plaintiffs fail to take into consideration that some aspects of agency such as the monetary aspects cannot be implied. This aspect of the independent contractor must be expressly provided by the principal and should not be by implication. In the matter

Human resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 7

Human resources - Essay Example Recruitment or employment is defined as a method of attracting individuals towards a vacant position in a company. When a post or job exists, employment is initiated (Billsberry, 2008). Selection is a method of engaging suitable person for a correct job or position at a correct time at an appropriate cost. The process of selection is followed by the recruitment process (Dale, 2003). There are various types of decision which are taken by the managers of Tesco Plc before the process of recruitment, which includes initially thinking about candidates from inside the division. Then they decide to consider the applicants from the University or college who shows their concern in the job. If the positions still remains unfilled then they consider selecting candidate from various sources beyond the University. Other decisions include job analysis, job depiction, and the selection criteria decided by the company (Yu and Cable, 2013). There are various recruitment approaches which are adopted by the companies as a part of their recruitment exercise. The two types of approaches are rational and processual approach of employment. Rational approaches are based on the grounds of selecting the most appropriate candidate in relation to their current and potential competencies. It identifies the abilities required to carry out a job in a proper way than just focusing on the personal characteristics (Leighton and Proctor, 2006). Processual approach involves several processes such as preparing job description, making advertisement of the vacancy, managing responses, arranging and conducting interviews, and making final decisions before selecting the candidate (O’Meara, 2013). According to Torrington et al. (2014), although rational approaches provides the organisations to customise their recruitment and selection processes in accordance with their individual requirements, processual approaches are more commonly use d because of an all

Health and Stress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health and Stress - Essay Example However, this paper aims to discuss gender differences and racial differences in terms of health behaviors. It has been observed that various races face identical stress and health problems. White and black are the most common and the basic classifications of races. However, in proper classification several names come. There are quite a few studies on stress and health behaviors and its impact on stress and health. This paper aims to find out if the gender and racial disparities exit. In case these do, what are the consequences? This paper also tends to identify if group of black citizens are healthier or stronger than the group of white people or vice versa. Does a race or gender impact one’s health behavior? If not, then what could be the reason behind such differences? Older Hispanics and Asian Islanders came across cultural blend by the mean of cross cultural weddings. Health behavior and stress impact on individual are based on different patterns where age, race, mental level, education and gender. It is said that black mortality curve crises over whites (Martin & Soldo, 1997). Different races have different health states. As per an investigation, inferior mental health and self perceived health have been reported in African Americans. Research found out that health and stress are not directly linked to race; however, it depends on the body strength, age, gender and in many cases, marital status also impacts the health behavior. Research clearly indicated that if the earnings and studies are managed, robust racial changes in health and stress are not observed (Williams, Yu, Jackson, & Anderson, 1997, pp. 243-250). Several studies have been conducted to find out the disparities among races, behaviors, genders, ages, physical progress, educational level, job descriptions, income and their body and mental behaviors. The term health and stress disparities remained hot topic for researcher throughout in differentiating the

American Higher Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

American Higher Education - Essay Example This college later turned into the Harvard University where initially the focus was on Bible studies; however, alongside with subjects relevant to philosophy, astronomy, ethics, logic etc., there were subjects similar to those of the colleges in England. Harvard was basically a dignified institution created to teach the ministers, thus, being an elitist college. The colonial era saw the establishment of nine more colleges, out of which eight were affiliated religiously; however, all were private universities targeting selected students from strong backgrounds (Cohen and Kisker 89-90). These colleges include William and Marry School, the Yale University, the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, Brown University, Rutgers, Dartmouth, the Cowley and William College, all of which were aimed at intellectual development of the children of the privileged class. Following the war, the trend of college education started becoming popular; more and more schools started coming into existence. 1820`s and 1830`s are considered to be important years in this context as important debates were raised considering the scope and the curricula of education (Denham 45). Subjects like history were being coupled with sciences and a shift away from the medieval model took place at that time. This era also saw an increase in the number of working class owing much to the changing demographics and trends in the United States of America. Thus, the Congress became more sensitive in this context as the need to educate the masses was on the rise. ... ially the focus was on Bible studies; however, alongside with subjects relevant to philosophy, astronomy, ethics, logic etc., there were subjects similar to those of the colleges in England. Harvard was basically a dignified institution created to teach the ministers, thus, being an elitist college. The colonial era saw the establishment of nine more colleges, out of which eight were affiliated religiously; however, all were private universities targeting selected students from strong backgrounds (Cohen and Kisker 89-90). These colleges include William and Marry School, the Yale University, the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, Brown University, Rutgers, Dartmouth, the Cowley and William College, all of which were aimed at intellectual development of the children of the privileged class. Following the war, the trend of college education started becoming popular; more and more schools started coming into existence. 1820`s and 1830`s are considered to be important years in this context as important debates were raised considering the scope and the curricula of education (Denham 45). Subjects like history were being coupled with sciences and a shift away from the medieval model took place at that time. This era also saw an increase in the number of working class owing much to the changing demographics and trends in the United States of America. Thus, the Congress became more sensitive in this context as the need to educate the masses was on the rise. Therefore, after heated debates and efforts, Congress finally passed the Morill Acts of 1862 and later in 1890 (Burtchael 62). This reform constituted a land reform system where the pieces of lands owned by the Federal Governments would be allocated to establish public schools for those students who belonged

Health and Stress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health and Stress - Essay Example However, this paper aims to discuss gender differences and racial differences in terms of health behaviors. It has been observed that various races face identical stress and health problems. White and black are the most common and the basic classifications of races. However, in proper classification several names come. There are quite a few studies on stress and health behaviors and its impact on stress and health. This paper aims to find out if the gender and racial disparities exit. In case these do, what are the consequences? This paper also tends to identify if group of black citizens are healthier or stronger than the group of white people or vice versa. Does a race or gender impact one’s health behavior? If not, then what could be the reason behind such differences? Older Hispanics and Asian Islanders came across cultural blend by the mean of cross cultural weddings. Health behavior and stress impact on individual are based on different patterns where age, race, mental level, education and gender. It is said that black mortality curve crises over whites (Martin & Soldo, 1997). Different races have different health states. As per an investigation, inferior mental health and self perceived health have been reported in African Americans. Research found out that health and stress are not directly linked to race; however, it depends on the body strength, age, gender and in many cases, marital status also impacts the health behavior. Research clearly indicated that if the earnings and studies are managed, robust racial changes in health and stress are not observed (Williams, Yu, Jackson, & Anderson, 1997, pp. 243-250). Several studies have been conducted to find out the disparities among races, behaviors, genders, ages, physical progress, educational level, job descriptions, income and their body and mental behaviors. The term health and stress disparities remained hot topic for researcher throughout in differentiating the

Brain-Based Learning Theory Strategies for ADHD Thesis

Brain-Based Learning Theory Strategies for ADHD - Thesis Example The purpose of the interviews was to gain an understanding of brain-based learning theory strategies for ADHD learners from the perspective of those who have used the strategies. The results of the study indicate that educators are comfortable with brain-based learning theory strategies, but are ambivalent with respect to inclusive learning. The educators participating in this research indicate that inclusive teaching may not be the most appropriate brain-based learning theory strategy as it puts the focus on behavioral controls and thus deprives ADHD students of all of the resources that they require to overcome their learning disabilities or to cope effectively with their learning disabilities. The results of this study and implications for practice are discussed. A study of data collected from US national health household surveys from 2004-2006, demonstrated that 14% of children between the ages of 6 and 17 suffered from Attention Hyper-activity Disorder (ADHD) (Pastor & Reuben, 2008). Globally, ADHD ranges from between 4% and 12% among children between the ages of 6 and 12 (Brown, Freeman, Perrin, et al., 2001). ADHD has been associated with learning disabilities and emotional disorders suggesting that children suffering from ADHD have difficulties adjusting in social and academic environments (Brown, et al., 2001). It has therefore been suggested that ADHD can best be understood when looked at as a â€Å"neurobehavioral disability† (Brook & Boaz, 2005, p. 187). Thus, researchers have increasingly looked to neuroscience as a means of understanding and predicting the cognitive and emotional functions of children with ADHD (Nigg & Casey, 2005). Brain-based learning theorists suggests that understanding how the brain functions can produce effective strategies for teaching children with a number of learning disabilities (Geake, 2009). These theories are

Linguistics and Children Essay Example for Free

Linguistics and Children Essay The power of language to reflect culture and influence thinking was first proposed by an American linguist and anthropologist, Edward Sapir (1884–1939), and his student, Benjamin Whorf (1897–1941). The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis stated that the way we think and view the world is determined by our language (Anderson Lightfoot, 2002; Crystal, 1987; Hayes, Ornstein, Gage, 1987). Instances of cultural language differences are evidenced in that some languages have specific words for concepts whereas other languages use several words to represent a specific concept. For example, the Arabic language includes many specific words for designating a certain type of horse or camel (Crystal, 1987). To make such distinctions in English, where specific words do not exist, adjectives would be used preceding the concept label, such as quarter horse or dray horse. Cultural differences have also been noted in the ways in which language is used pragmatically. In our American culture, new skills are typically taught and learned through verbal instruction (Slobin, 1979). In some cultures, new skills are learned through nonverbal observation. A distinction has also been made between cultures that encourage independent learning and those that encourage cooperative learning (McLeod, 1994). Differences in the social roles of adults and children also influence how language is used. Home and school contexts may represent different cultures, subcultures, or both and may influence language acquisition in noticeable ways. Nonverbal cues (e. g. , facial expression) and contextual cues (e. g. , shared experience) have different communicative roles in different cultures (Kaiser Rasminsky, 2003). In some cultures, prelinguistic children (who are not yet verbalizing) are spoken about rather than spoken to (Heath, 1983). Children may be expected, and thus taught, to speak only when an adult addresses them. They are not encouraged to initiate conversations with adults or to join spontaneously in ongoing adult conversations. Additionally, in some cultures, children who enthusiastically volunteer answers at school are considered show-offs (Peregoy Boyle, 1993). In some cultural settings, children are not asked recitational questions. Instead, they are asked only questions of clarification or for new information. Thus, when these children experience recitational questions in a school setting, they may be confused as to the purpose of the questioning and the expected response. Further cultural differences in how language is used in educational settings have been documented by Tharp (1994). These differences include variations in how stories are told, the wait time given by teachers to students during questioning sequences, the rhythmic patterns of the verbal interactions, and the patterns of conversational turn-taking. During the 1970s and 1980s, educators and linguists researched and debated the verbal-deficit perspective. This perspective contended that anyone who did not use standard English did not have a valid language and thus was verbally deficient. Although the verbal-deficit perspective has now been proven invalid, it is important to understand the research that was conducted to either support or discredit that perspective. Bernstein (1971), Bereiter and Englemann (1966), and Labov (1979) were among the researchers who studied language differences between different social groups, including middle- and lower-income groups and ethnic groups. This body of research identified specific differences in the way children from different socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds used language in school and out-of-school settings. Implications of this research have been widely discussed and interpreted in a variety of ways. Basil Bernstein (1971) documented the different linguistic codes used by children from lower- and middle-income families in England. Lower-income children were described as using a â€Å"restricted code† or highly contextualized language, while children from middle-income families used an â€Å"elaborated code,† or decontextualized language. His research also documented differences in school achievement for these two groups of children. Interpretations of Bernstein’s work concluded a cause–effect relation between language use and school success, supporting a â€Å"verbal deficit† perspective: the working-class environment of the low-income children created a verbal deficiency responsible for subsequent low educational achievement (Winch, 1990). Here in the United States, Bereiter and Englemann (1966) conducted further research from the verbal-deficit perspective. They focused on the language of preschool African American children in Urbana, Illinois. Bereiter and Engleman concluded that the language used by African American children was not a valid language and thus recommended that these children needed to be taught English in the school setting (Winch, 1990). Academically oriented preschool curricula were developed (e. g. , Blank, Rose, Berlin, 1978) to provide the needed English language training for verbally deficient children. William Labov (1979; Winch, 1990) explored social dialects of lower income African American children in urban settings. He studied the differences in children’s in-school and out-of-school (e. g. , playground) language competencies. His data directly challenged the verbal-deficit theory because it documented the elaborated and systematic linguistic properties of Black English. His research supported the idea that Black English was a separate language system with its own grammar and rules. Labov described dialects as having â€Å"slightly different versions of the same rules, extending and modifying the grammatical processes which are common to all dialects of English† (Labov, 1995, p.54). Labov’s research supported the idea that verbal differences are not verbal deficits. Because Labov’s research focused on language used in academic and nonschool settings, he also created a greater awareness of the role of context and dialect in communication. Tough (1977) conducted a longitudinal study of children from advantaged (college-educated, professional parents) and disadvantaged (parents who were in unskilled or semiskilled occupations) homes. The study began when the children were 3 years old, with follow-up at 5 1? 2 and 7 1? 2 years. At age 3, the disadvantaged children and the advantaged children showed significant differences in the ways they used language. Specifically, the disadvantaged children did not use language to recall and give details of prior experiences, anticipate upcoming events and possible outcomes, reason about current and remembered events, problem solve using language for planning and considering alternatives, reach solutions, create and sustain dramatic play events, and understand others’ experiences and feelings. When these children were studied again at 5 1? 2 and 7 1? 2 years, the disadvantaged children produced shorter, less complex responses. This research contributed to our understanding that children from different cultural environments may be learning to use language differently and may experience difficulty in participating in the language environment in classrooms. Further awareness of the role of cultural environments in the acquisition of language was influenced in the 1980s by ethnographic research techniques that were used by language researchers. Ethnographic studies have contributed significantly to our understanding of linguistic diversity. Ethnography uses participant observation in real-life settings and focuses on individuals within their social and cultural contexts. In her ethnographic study, Heath (1983) explored children’s acquisition of language at home and school in two communities in the southeastern United States. She found differences in communication in working-class black and white families as well as among middle-class townspeople of both ethnic groups. Heath also described differences in story structures, language, and sense of â€Å"truth† (fiction vs. nonfiction) that children learned at home that were different from those expected at school. To be successful at school, these children had to be able â€Å"to recognize when a story is expected to be true, when to stick to the facts, and when to use their imaginations† (Heath, 1983, p. 294). Heath’s research also documented valid and authentic differences in the ways language is used and in the ways in which children in those respective communities become competent language users. Heath concluded that the contrasts she found in language were not based on race, but on complex cultural influences in each community. The importance of family context in language acquisition was more recently described by Hart and Risley (1995, 1999). Findings from their longitudinal study document the significance of â€Å"talkativeness† in families in influencing language acquisition rather than the family’s socioeconomic status or ethnic group identity. Differences in language use were attributed to the complex family culture—not simply due to socioeconomic status or ethnic group identity. Among the families that were studied, the most important difference was in the amount of talking. Children in families where there was more talking developed higher levels of language in the areas of vocabulary growth and vocabulary use. These differences were strongly linked to school performance at age 9. Among these families, Hart and Risley (1995) identified five quality features in parents’ language interactions with their children: 1. Language diversity: the variation and amount of nouns and modifiers used by the parents 2. Feedback tone: the positive feedback given to children’s participation in the interaction 3. Symbolic emphasis: the emphasis placed on focusing on names and associated relations of the concepts and the recall of those symbols 4. Guidance style: parental interaction that used asking rather than demanding in eliciting specific behavior from the child 5. Responsiveness: parental responsiveness to requests or questions initiated by children Hart and Risley (1995) speculated that these categories may be â€Å"important for the language-based analytic and symbolic competencies upon which advanced education and a global economy depend† (p. 193). A current hypothesis on why children from diverse linguistic backgrounds experience difficulty in school is the socialization mismatch hypothesis. This hypothesis â€Å"predicts that children are more likely to succeed in school when the home language and literacy socialization patterns are similar to those that are used and valued in school† (Faltis, 1998, p. 23). This hypothesis has been applied to children who speak a nonstandard English dialect as well as to children who are learning a second language. Home language socialization patterns may differ from those favored in the school classroom in the following ways (Faltis, 1998): 1. The amount of talk directed to preschool children 2. The participation of young children as conversation partners with adults 3. Opportunities children have to explain or give a personal interpretation of events 4. The types of questions asked of children during storybook sharing 5. The forms of narrative that are used (e. g. , fiction, nonfiction, or ongoing narratives) In addition, the social interaction patterns used in the classroom may vary from the home culture’s with respect to expectations for competitive versus collaborative or cooperative activities as well as the â€Å"courtesies and conventions of conversations† (Tharp, 1994, p. 140).

Economic Analysis of the Wine Industry

Economic Analysis of the Wine Industry Amar Basnet Human beings need different kinds of the materials in order to live day to day life some may have more importance and some may have the less importance. In current business world we can find different kinds of the product of same kind and same use which is called supplement product. Different product has got different nature which is based on the use, quality, based on the producer. But according to the nature of the production product are divided in 3 groups which are as follows: Primary Production: Primary production those products which are produce naturally or the products which are wholly based on the nature are called primary production. Agriculture production is a best example of the primary production. The grapes apple and other which is produce by the farmer is considered as the raw material for wine industry. Secondary production: If the production process is related with the manufacturing than it is considered as the secondary production. For example production of the television, car, electronics items etc is considered as the secondary production. In this production process assembling process are involved in it. There are various process involved in the wine production like crushing, fragmentation, etc. which are done with the help of machine which is considered as the secondary production. Tertiary production: Productions which is related with the services is called the tertiary production. The examples of the tertiary production are education, health facilities, etc. In recent year the wine has become the part of the human life. Drinking the wine is considered as the important ritual of the modern society. In recent world Spain, America France and Italy is considered as the main producer of wine in the world. Spanish wine has got the good reputation in the current wine producing country. The wines are produced by using the naturally produced fruits like grapes, apple and orange and with other fruit of the choice of individual. Spain has got important market place in the current wine business world. They are one of the ancient countries in the world which produce wine since ancient period they are producing the different qualities of the wine with the different price level. They have got the 70 region and they have got the huge wine yard they are considered as the third largest country in the world in the wine production. There are various places which are famous for the wine production like Valencia, Ribera, Del Duero, Penedes, etc. Distribution channel There are 2 kinds of the distribution channel which is found in wine industry are as follows: Direct channel: According to this channel the producer sell the wine to customer without any agent or retailers here there is no involvement of the middleman or agent due to this price will be less or cheap. Long channel: On the basis of this distribution channel the wine is one produce it is given to distributer for example to the wholesaler then it goes to the retailer store, for example to shop, off-licence and other shop only after that it goes to the customer. On basis of this distribution channel there is involvement of the different channel so the price will be high when it reaches to the final customer. Wine production is one of the important businesses in the Spain. In order to produce the wine different processes are involved in the wine production. It has got the historical and cultural value in Spanish society. In order to produce the wine various process are involved in it the process of the wine production are as follows: Harvest: This is the first step involve in the wine production. Grapes are the main raw material for the wine first it should be crossbred and need to b mixed well the grapes must be harvested at the precisely the right time to produce the best wine and many producer harvest their crop by hands in order to produce the quality wine. Now a days the professional wineries harvest according to the taste and colour of grapes. Crushing and pressing: This is the second process that is involved in the wine production process once the grapes or the fruits which are the raw material are harvest they are crushed in the machine but in order to make the wine qualitative the seeds and skin are separated this will help to make the quality wine and helps to add up colour in wine. Fragmentation: This is considered as another important process in wine production. Once the grapes are crushed and pressed then the juice is extracted and the juice is moved into the large container in which yeast is added and fragmentation process starts. It will take 10 to 30 days on; on the basis of the quality of wines the days are determined. Filtering and aging: Once the grapes are fragmented the wine are filtered when the solid and yeast has been removed from the wine and it is distributed in the bottle and case to be aged. There are various aging processes. It is done on the basis of the age and on the basis of bottle. Wine production has got the various processes. For the success of the any wine industry raw material capital input and labour plays the vital role. Raw material For the wine industry grapes, apple, orange and different other fruits and berries are considered as the main raw material. In Spain there are lots of grapes yard and according to climatic condition grapes are favourable product to grow and form economic point of view the Spanish wine producer they select the grapes as their main raw materials because they are produce in Spain and is cheap. Some of the other raw materials are sugar cane, yeast, pulp, acids and tannins and different minerals. Capital input Capital refers to the sum of the money invest in the business in order to produce the goods. For the success of the wine business capital input is considered as the life blood of the business. The fixed assets like machinery, loan from the bank, delivery vans and motors, all the tools and equipment etc are considered as the capital input in the wine business. In order to operate the day to day business capital input is very essential without the capital input the wine production can’t move forward. Due to this reason we can say that capital input plays vital role in success of the wine industry. Labour requirement For the any business qualitative manpower is required. In the wine industry also qualified and experience labour is required. The quality wine producer can operate day to day business as well as can increase the efficiency in the production of the wine this will help in the production of the quality wine. The wine market has become very competitive in order to compete in the competitive market efficient and qualified labour force is required who has potential, which has capacity to increase the efficiency in the work and required those labour force who can understand market situation. For the any business organization cost control and costing process helps to move forward. This is one of the essential factors that help to run the business successfully. In order to produce goods firm use raw materials, factors of the productions which are called input. The expenditure which is occurred in it is called cost. There are two types of the cost variable cost and fixed cost. The cost which doesn’t change with the change quantity output is called fixed cost where as the cost which change with changing output is called variable cost. Fixed cost is normally related with the fixed factor of production where as variable cost is related with variable factor of the production. The example of the fixed cost in the wine industry are wages of the staff, rent, insurance, interest on the fixed capital etc where as the example of the variable cost in the wine industry are wages of the casual labour, expenses of the electricity etc. in the Spanish wine company normally the depre ciation charge for the machine, salary for the permanent staff, insurance for the company are fixed cost they don’t change although they make production high or low. They don’t effect of the annual budgeting because once they are determine they will be same for that entire year . the variable cost change with the change with the per unit production. The electricity charge is one of the good example of the wine industry, when the production is high then lots of electricity is used may be during fragmentation process may be during crushing machine is used the more wine we produce more electricity is used so it change with the changing output. Economy of the scale refers to the decrease in unit cost of a product or service resulting from large-scale operations, as in mass production. This concept of the economy helps the any business organization to run long run and helps in the current competitive global market. If the wine producer can produce the large amount of the wine than they can buy the large amount of the raw materials from the producer if they take in bulk amount then they can get in the cheaper price, once the good and high technology equipment is used the production will high and production cost will be less due to which large scale of the production is successful this will help the producer the qualitative productive product in cheaper price. The economy of the scale can be achieved by hiring the new technology machine, qualified manpower, by increasing the size of company and machine. This will help in reducing the production cost and helps to increase the output. The economy of the scale is thus achievable in the production by the long run production. In order to achieve the economical of the scale the wine producer should emphasis in the increasing the fix cost and decrease the variable cost. So the wine industry should always emphasis to find the qualified labour force which are well known and has experience about wineries, should always try to install the new technology machine which are multipurpose and help to produce the product in the large quantity. Wine has become an important part of the modern society; it has got the cultural, historical and religious importance. Spain is considered as one of the best wine producer country in the world which produces the different varieties of the wine at the different price level. It has been exporting its product in the different countries. Nepal is one of the wine companies where Spain is exporting the wine every year in huge quantity. Wine consumption has increased in the last 10 years. Nepal is one of the tourist destinations for the European and American visitors. Large numbers of the hotel, restaurant, pub, resort are there in Nepal, they import lots of wine from the Spain. Spanish red wine and black level are very popular in Nepal and every year large amount of black level and red wine are exported to Nepal in huge quantity. Although there are lots of barriers, Spain wine producer are supplying its product in Nepal. The only one way to export the wine to Nepal is the air transport due to the geographical territory. They don’t have access to sea there are lots of mountain to reach Nepal so air transport is only one alternative to reach there. To export the goods and product from air is expensive. The export cost is very high because of the high custom duty, tax, vat and the transport cost is very high. Only few wine companies select the Nepal as the market because it is hard to enter in the market. The legal procedure is very hard for the alcoholic product. The rules and regulation is very strict for the wine industry. The custom duty fare is very high and the import and export rules regulation is very strict and hard to follow so only few wine producers they choose Nepal as their target market. Nepal is one of the landlocked countries with big mountain and hills where the climate change is frequent and the air transport get cancelled frequently so summer will be only best time so export the goods. So during the summer large quantity of Spanish wine is exp orted to Nepal. There are only few authorized retailers of wine of Nepal so it is hard to find the market place and hard to export the product due to this also the supply process is very slow. However the demand of the people is high but due to the climatic condition, due to high transport cost, due to the strict rules and regulation regarding the export and import the supply process is very hard. As a whole we can say that Spanish wine industry has got the large market in the world and considered as the third largest country in producing the wine. The wine industry has got the traditional and historical importance still there are many wine industry which are operate in the same way they used to 20 30 years ago. If they can be modernized and if they adopt modern technology and equipment they can gain the economy of the scale and helps to direct the company in the path of success so the wine producer should always should emphasis in the division of labour, should always emphasis in modern technology this will help them to produce the qualitative wine and helps to compete in the market easily.

Huck :: essays research papers

whites were in inner conflict over their belief in a creed of equality and opportunity on the one hand, and their treatment of blacks on the other. Huckleberry Finn, the most influential novel dealing with black and white in America, Twain visualized a white whose conscience tells him it is sinful to rescue a black from slavery. it would be difficult to find a novel where the characters are more enthralled by money, driven by the search for it, ready to commit violence on its behalf, or more victimized by others' lust for it. when his conscience besieges him because he does not tell the slave hunters the truth, when he decides to go to hell rather than allow Jim to remain a slave, Huck and Jim, river and raft. Huck and Jim, floating down the river on their raft. The images are so familiar that it is easy to mistake familiarity for accessibility. In reality, the mythology they evoke is not easy to decipher, given that it identifies legendary black-white amity and unbounded, dreamlike freedom with a voyage that takes a fugitive slave ever further south. The nakedness of Huck and Jim when they are alone on the raft becomes a symbol of how they have shucked off the excrescences of the real world, their clothes, and have come as close as possible to the world of the spirit." The implication that skin color ceases to matter when the two are away from civilization--that they spontaneously move beyond color consciousness and see in each other only a color-free humanity. In Huckleberry Finn, slavery seems fixed, permanent, while everything else is in flux, transitory. Identities mutate as if in a dream, or nightmare. Huck, who forever picks up and moves on, is a master creator of identities.

The Worlds Fight Against Microbes Essay -- Research Papers Science Bi

The World's Fight Against Microbes   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many infectious diseases that were nearly eradicated from the industrialized world, and newly emerging diseases are now breaking out all over the world due to the misuse of medicines, such as antibiotics and antivirals, the destruction of our environment, and shortsighted political action and/or inaction.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Viral hemorrhagic fevers are a group of diseases caused by viruses from four distinct families of viruses: filoviruses, arenaviruses, flaviviruses, and bunyaviruses. The usual hosts for most of these viruses are rodents or arthropods, and in some viruses, such as the Ebola virus, the natural host is not known. All forms of viral hemorrhagic fever begin with fever and muscle aches, and depending on the particular virus, the disease can progress until the patient becomes deathly ill with respiratory problems, severe bleeding, kidney problems, and shock. The severity of these diseases can range from a mild illness to death (CDC I).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Ebola virus is a member of a family of RNA (ribonucleic acid) viruses known as filoviruses. When these viruses are magnified several thousand times by an electron microscope they have the appearance of long filaments or threads. Filoviruses can cause hemorrhagic fever in humans and animals, and because of this they are extremely hazardous. Laboratory studies of these viruses must be carried out in special maximum containment facilities, such as the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia and the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), at Fort Detrick in Frederick, Maryland (CDC I,II).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Ebola hemorrhagic fever in humans is a severe, systemic illness caused by infection with Ebola virus. There are four subtypes of Ebola virus (Ebola-Zaire, Ebola-Sudan, Ebola-Ivory Coast, and Ebola-Reston), which are not just variations of a single virus, but four distinct viruses. Three of these subtypes are known to cause disease in humans, and they are the Zaire, Sudan, and Ivory Coast subtypes. Out of all the different viral hemorrhagic fevers known to occur in humans , those caused by filoviruses have been associated with the highest case-fatality rates. These rates can be as high as 90 percent for epidemics of hemorrhagic fever caused by Ebola-Zaire virus. No vaccine exists to protect from... ... Yet a bacterium can kill a whale ... Such is the adaptability and versatility of microorganisms as compared with humans and other so called "higher" organisms, that they will doubtless continue to colonise and alter the face of the Earth long after we and the rest of our cohabitants have left the stage forever. Microbes, not macrobes, rule the world. - Bernard Dixon, 1994 Works Cited CDC(I).Ebola Virus Hemorrhagic Fever: General Information. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/virlfv/ebolainf.htm[1996, November 20]. CDC(II). Filoviruses in Nonhuman Primates: Overview of the Investigation in Texas.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/virlfvr/ebola528.htm[1996, November 20]. Garrett, Laurie. The Coming Plague. Farrar, Straus. and Giroux: New York, 1994. Mosby’s Medical, Mursing, and Allied Health Dictionary 4th Ed. .  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mosby-Year Book, Inc.: St.Louis,1994. Preston, Richard. The Hot Zone. Random House Inc.: New York, 1994. Roizman, Bernard. Infectious Diseases in an Age of Change. National Academy Press:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Washington,D.C., 1995. Top, Franklin H. . Communicable and Infectious Diseases. C.V. Mosby Company: St.Louis, 1964.